英文毕业论文大全11篇
时间：2023-03-22 17:36:24绪论：写作既是个人情感的抒发，也是对学术真理的探索，欢迎阅读由发表云整理的11篇英文毕业论文范文，希望它们能为您的写作提供参考和启发。
篇（1）
Acknowledgements
篇（2）
1.0 前言
近15年，体裁（genre）和体裁分析（genre analysis）成为第一语言和第二语言教学领域里的热门话题（Hyon 1996）。我国不少专家、学者都试图把这种理论应用在具有特定交际目的的篇章上，如分析农业英语论文摘要（易兴霞，2006），分析应用语言学领域学术文章的宏观和微观结构（杨瑞英，2006）毕业论文模板，分析商务促销类语篇（王宏俐, 郭继荣，2006）等。本文拟从Bhatia的英文促销信的体裁分析模式入手，分析主要交际目的为说服潜在客户购买商家所提供的产品或接受其服务的英文促销信的表现形式，图式结构和特殊信息，并通过分析语义的文化预设和搭配意义，加深对促销信的语言表面特征的认识。
2.0理论依据
2.1体裁
语言学中的体裁（genre）不同于文学中的体裁。Swales (1990: 45-58) 认为体裁是在特定社会文化背景下对人类交际事件进行分类的结果。所谓交际事件就是人们按照特定目的和特定程式运用语言在社会中办事的实例。新加坡的Bhatia (1993:13-16)在 Swales的体裁理论基础上做了进一步的完善, 认为:1)体裁是一种可辨认的交际事件;2)体裁不是一般的交际事件 ,而是一种内部结构特征鲜明,高度约定俗成的交际事件;3)在建构语篇时 ,必须遵循某种特定体裁所要求的惯例;4)尽管体裁有其惯例和制约性, 内行人仍可在体裁规定内传达个人意图和交际目的。因此交际目的往往决定应该使用哪种体裁，而体裁的常规性又维我们提供了可以遵循的体裁结构潜势。
2.2体裁分析
体裁分析是20 世纪90 年代由Swales (1990)和Bhatia (1993)发展起来的一种分析方法。他们认为任何体裁都是由一系列的语轮构成，语步(move)和步骤( step)是语篇分析的出发点论文开题报告范文。Swales的层次动向法（move approach）常用在具体的体裁分析中，即根据不同的交际目的，对某一语篇按照意义与功能划出层次，然后再根据层次来考察分析语言的表达形式。Swales 没有对语步和步骤提出明确的定义,但Nwogu (1997)认为语步是一个由一系列词汇,主题意义和修辞特征所标明的具有统一意义倾向的语篇片断，步骤是实现语步的可供选择的修辞策略，一个语步可以由一个或多个步骤来实现。例如毕业论文模板，Bhatia (1993:62)根据体裁“ 语步 (moves) 和步骤( steps)”分析理论，将推销体裁概括成七个 “语步” (move) :1. Establishing credentials (确立资格证明) ; 2. Introducing the offer (介绍推销内容)：⑴offering the product orservice (介绍产品或服务) ,⑵ Essential detailing of the offer (介绍推销内容的重要细节) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推销内容的价值) ; 3. Offering incentives (激励购买) ; 4.Enclosing documents (附寄文件) ; 5. Soliciting response(请求回复) ; 6. Using pressure tactics (采用压力策略) ; 7. Ending politely (礼貌收尾)。在以上七个“语步” 中 ,第二语步 Introducing the offer 又是由三个步骤(step)组成的。
体裁分析模式为语篇研究提供了新的考察视角与方式。使用体裁和体裁分析理论对某个特定语篇进行分析，是对语篇宏观结构和微观结构分析的有机结合，既注重语篇结构的宏观结构和认知结构，也注重特定的体裁结构在词汇和语法层面的特定表现。
3.0体裁分析在英文促销信中的应用
3.1促销信的体裁界定
促销信是商务英语中常见的一种语篇，它是以书信的格式由促销人员向顾客传递商品或服务的存在及其性能、特征等信息，帮助顾客认识商品或服务所带来的利益，从而达到引起顾客的注意和兴趣、唤起需求、采取购买行为的目的。因此它的本质是销售者和消费者之间的信息沟通，主要交际目的就是通过向消费者的宣传、诱导和提示，促进消费者产生购买动机，影响消费者的购买行为，实现产品由生产领域向消费领域的转移。这样的交际目的决定收信人和写信人通常为并不熟悉的双方，因此语言上谦虚有礼、简洁明晰是必不可少的。
3.2 促销信的内在宏观结构
一封成功的促销信在内在结构上 ,基本遵循Bhatia 的七个 “语步”的模式 ,通过吸引客户的注意、向客户详细介绍所推销的产品或服务并索求回复等语篇片断来实现说服潜在客户购买所推销产品或服务的交际目的。下面我们从Bhatia的英文促销信的体裁分析模式入手毕业论文模板，来具体讨论促销信的层次动向。。
Dear customer,
⑴Theunion bakers would like to announce a great offer this Valentine day. Every two kg cakeyou buy you get raffle ticket which allows you to enter into a draw which willgive you a chance to win a dinner for two at a three star hotel. You can have awonderful dinner with your loved one on the eve of Valentine’s Day.
⑵ Thebakers will arrange for the pickup and drop to the venue and you can enjoy thedinner along with the dance party at the three star hotels.
⑶Don’tyou think it will be fun to take your girlfriend or boyfriend out for dinner ona valentine’s day and make the day a special one? Imagine all that fun you havewith your loved one with tasty cuisine and exciting and thrilling dance party.To top it all you can meet famous singer and dancer who is the guest of honorthat day.
⑷Visitany of our outlets to get more information. Hurry and buy a wonderful tastycake for your loved one.
⑸Sincethe offer is valid till (time how long).please act now.
⑹Sincerely,
这封促销信由五段组成，第一段的第一句是第一个语步: Establishing credentials (确立资格证明),通过提及在情人节要提供的一项服务来吸引顾客的注意力；第一段的第二句到第三段是第二个语步：Introducing the offer (介绍推销内容)。第二个语步由三个步骤组成：⑴offering the product or service (介绍产品或服务) ,⑵ Essentialdetailing of the offer (介绍推销内容的重要细节) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推销内容的价值) 。第一段的第二句是第一个步骤，主要介绍了即将推出的服务——每买两公斤蛋糕就能抽签，就有机会赢得在三星级宾馆的两人晚宴；第一段的第三句和第二段是第二个步骤，详细介绍推销服务的细节——情人节前夕在三星级宾馆和挚爱共进晚餐、共舞；第三段是第三个步骤，主要指出推销服务的精神价值——使情人节过得特别，并能遇到明星。第二个语步是促销信最为重要的部分，决定能否帮助顾客认识商品或服务所带来的利益，从而达到引起顾客的注意和兴趣、唤起需求、最终采取购买行为的目的。第四段是第三、四个语步：Offering incentives (激励购买)和Soliciting response(请求回复)。第四段第一句是请求顾客做出回复——到销售点寻求更多信息；第二句是鼓励有购买倾向的顾客下定决心。第五段是第五个语步：Using pressure tactics (采用压力策略)，Sincerely和签名是第六个语步：Ending politely (礼貌收尾)，作为传统信件独特的结尾方式，这一语步在促销信中也很常见。
与Bhatia的七个语步模式略有不同的是：这封促销信并没有Enclosing documents (附寄文件)这一语步；而且Offeringincentives (激励购 买)和Soliciting response(请求回复)的顺序也有所不同。王宏俐, 郭继荣(2006)认为，在语篇构建中常使用的语步是核心语步毕业论文模板，不太出现的辅语步是外围语步，在促销信中，第一、二、四语步是核心语步，由于Enclosing documents (附寄文件)这一语步是外围语步，销售者可根据情况决定是否使用；至于语步顺序，尽管促销信是专门用途英语里的一种，有其惯例和制约性，但我们仍可在体裁规定内传达个人意图和交际目的论文开题报告范文。
3.3 促销信的文化预设和搭配意义
这实际是一封是以西方文化为背景的抽奖促销信。促销信的最主要部分——第二语步也是以这个文化预设为先决条件的。销售者想要促销的商品是蛋糕，但在促销信里，抽奖有可能赢得情人节的晚餐却是描述的重点，这主要是商家抓住了顾客消费过程中的侥幸获大利心理——以抽奖赢得与挚爱在情人节共进免费晚餐的机会，设置中奖机会，利用抽奖的形式毕业论文模板，来吸引消费者购买商品蛋糕。令人心动的抽奖活动成功地把顾客的注意力指向拉到了本应大力宣传的产品——蛋糕上面。如果收信人不了解这个文化预设，就不容易达到促销信的交际目的。
Leech（1981:17）认为：搭配意义是指一个词与另一个词连用搭配时使得该词的意义随语境而发生的变化。因此促销信在词的搭配上非常注意。促销信使用的形容词大多是描述性和评价性的，多为褒义词，例如：great, wonderful, special, tasty, exciting, thrilling, famous,wonderful, 这些形容词为收信人勾勒出一幅浪漫、激情、美味的晚餐情景。尽管这是一封书信，但口语词汇多余书面语词汇，浅显易懂、简洁明晰。销售者为了推销商品或者服务，常常直接使用反问疑问句和祈使句，增强引导功能，说服或敦促收信人采取购买行动。
3.4 总结
体裁分析超越了对语篇语言特征的简单描述,力求解释语篇的理据, 探讨语篇结构背后的社会文化因素和心理认知因素, 揭示实现交际背景的特殊方式和语篇结构的规范性。促销信具是专门用途英语的一种，把促销信这一体裁语篇看作是一个有规律的有结构的层次动向的组合的思想, 有助于我们更好地理解这种信函体裁，写出目的明确、结构清晰、用词准确的促销信。
参考文献：
1.Hyon, Sunny. Genre in Three Traditions:Implications for ESL [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 30/ 4 :693-722, 1996.
2.易兴霞.体裁分析与农业英语论文摘要[J]. 西安外国语学院学报，2006(9):28-31.
3.杨瑞英.体裁分析的应用：应用语言学学术文章结构分析[J]. 外语与外语教学，2006(10):29-34.
4.王宏俐,郭继荣.体裁分析与商务促销类语篇[J]. 外语教学，2006(7): 32-37.
5.Swales, J. M. Genre Analysis: English inAcademic and Research Settings [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
6.Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Usein Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993.
7.Nwogu, K. N. The Medical Research Paper: Structureand Function [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 199 16 (2): 119-138.
篇（3）
随着居民生活水平的不断提升以及消费意识的不断转变，我国商业银行个人信贷业务也随之呈现出蓬勃发展的势头，其在商业银行业务中的比重不断上升，已经成为了其盈利的主要来源之一。个人信贷业务的市场规模以及发展前景使得众多商业银行纷纷在该领域展开厮杀，不过个人信贷业务在我国还属于一个相对新生的事物，其发展历程很短，商业银行还没有形成一套完整的风险控制体系，结果商业银行在信贷业务领域的快速扩张放大了个人信贷业务的风险，为商业银行个人信贷业务的健康发展蒙上了一层阴影。如何在个人信贷业务的快速发展以及风险控制之间寻找到一个平衡点，确保个人信贷风险控制在一定的范围之内正在不断的考验着商业银行管理者的经营智慧。本文以个人信贷业务风险控制为写作主线，综合运用文献研究、对比研究等方法，在借鉴个人信贷业务风险管理领域最新研究成果的基础之上，提出了我国商业银行个人信贷业务风险控制的有效对策，希望能够给我国个人信贷业务的健康发展带来有益的思考。
本文共分为五个章节，第一章为引言，主要对文章的研究背景与意义、国内外研究文献、研究思路以及结构等三个内容进行阐述。第二章为相关概念以及理论，重点对个人信贷业务的概念、个人信贷业务的特征、作用以及个人信贷风险理论等进行了论述总结。第三章为我国商业银行个人信贷业务发展历程与现状，本章回顾了我国个人信贷业务的发展历程，并对目前个人信贷业务中存在的风险以及风险成因进行了挖掘分析。第四章为商业银行个人信贷风险国际经验的借鉴，这一章对一些发达国家和地区的个人信贷风险的控制进行了系统的数理分析，并从中提炼出来了一些值得我国商业银行借鉴的经验。第五章为个人信贷风险控制的对策讨论，在借鉴相关国家和地区个人信贷风险控制经验的基础之上，提出了从信用环境以及内部管理两个视角的具体策略。文章整个内容遵循了提出问题、分析问题以及解决问题的具体思路，根据这一思路进行相关内容的组织以及安排，力求做到文章结构的逻辑合理，内容完善。
关键词：个人信贷；风险控制；成因；策略
Abstract
With the continuous change of rising living standards and consumption consciousness, personal credit business of commercial banks in China also shows the rapid development momentum, and its proportion in the commercial banking business rising, has become one of the main source of profit. Personal credit business market and development prospect of so many commercial banks in the field of the fighting started, but personal credit business in our country is a relatively new thing, its history is very short, the commercial bank has not formed a set of complete risk control system, the rapid expansion in credit business of commercial banks field amplified the personal credit risk, for the healthy development of the commercial bank personal credit business cast a shadow on the. How to find a balance point between the rapid development of personal credit business and risk control, to ensure that the personal credit risk control in a certain range are constantly testing the commercial bank administrator management wisdom. According to the personal credit business risk control as the main method of writing, the integrated use of literature research, comparison research, based on the latest research results in the field of credit risk management, puts forward effective countermeasures of personal credit business of our country commercial bank risk control, the hope can give the healthy development of China's consumer credit business has the beneficial thinking.
This paper is divided into five chapters, the first chapter is the introduction, three main contents of the research background and significance, the domestic and foreign research literature, research ideas and structure are described in detail. The second chapter is the related concept and theory, focusing on the concept of personal credit business, personal credit business characteristics, functions and the personal credit risk theory are discussed in this paper summary. The third chapter is the development history and present situation of personal credit business of commercial banks in China, this chapter reviews the development process of the personal credit business in China, and the personal credit business of the risks and risk analysis of mining. The fourth chapter is the experience of the international commercial bank personal credit risk control reference, this chapter of some developed countries and areas of the credit risk analysis system of mathematics, and to refine out some worthy of our country commercial bank experience. The fifth chapter to discuss the Countermeasures of personal credit risk control, on the basis of personal credit risk control experience to learn from other countries and regions, the specific strategy of credit environment and internal management of the two perspective. The whole content follows the problem, analysis problem and the specific idea to solve the problem, relevant content according to this train of thought, organization and arrangement, and strive to achieve the logical structure of reasonable, perfect.
篇（4）
2.1The history of British English 3
2.2 The history of American English 4
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English 6
3.1 Lexical differences 6
3.1.1The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms 7
3.1.2 Differences in verb 7
3.1.2.1 Differences in the inflectional endings of verbs 7
3.1.2.2Different use of present perfect tenses 8
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs 8
3.1.2.4 Different use of "have" 9
3.1.3 Different use of function words 9
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb 9
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb 10
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles 11
3.2 Syntactical differences 12
3.2.1 Differences in compound object 12
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements 13
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood 13
4. The differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English 14
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English 17
6. Conclusion 17
Acknowledgements 19
References 19
1．Introduction
There is one play in the famous American TV series Friends: Ross will go to England to marry Emily, suddenly Rachel decides to show his love to Ross and goes to England either, so his friend Phoebe makes a call to tell the news to Ross and Emily, Emily’s housekeeper answers the call. The dialogue as follows:
Housekeeper: The Waltham Residence.
Phoebe: Oh...yes…is this…umm…Emily’s Parents’ house?
Housekeeper: This is the housekeeper speaking. And by the way, young lady, that is not how one addresses oneself on the telephone. First one identifies oneself and then asks for the person with whom one wishes to speak.
Phoebe: (In a British accent)This is Phoebe Buffay. I was wondering, please, if-if it’s not too much trouble, please, umm，might I speak to Miss Emily Waltham, please?
Housekeeper: Miss Waltham is at the rehearsal dinner and it’s not polite to make fun of people. Goodbye.
Phoebe: No,no,no, I’ll be nice, I swear!!! Could you just give me the number for where they are?
Housekeeper: I’m afraid, I’m not at liberty to divulge that information.
Phoebe: Ok, somebody is on their way to ruin wedding okay. And I have to warn somebody, alright. So if you don’t give me that number then I’m going to come over there and kick your snooty ass all the way to New Glocken...shire.
Housekeeper: Hangs up[1]
We can see from the above dialogue that British English is more serious and formal than American English. The American speaks at will while the Englishmen speak gently. As we all know the two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. There seems to be little differences between the two varieties but the influences are very different. On some occasion we may have some mistakes in communication, in order to help the English speakers and learners understand the two varieties better and to eliminate troubles that may prevent communication and English writing, so I will make analysis on the grammar differences between British English and American English.
2. British English and American English
Nowadays English has developed into a global language. The fact that such a large number of people all around the world speak English means that there are many dialects and varieties. The two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. As a message carrier, English fully reflects the unique culture possessed by the British and American countries. Since in Dissertations on the English Language, Noah Webster pointed out “several circumstances render a feature separation of the American tongue from the English necessary and unavoidable.”
2.1 The History of British English
English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.
Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary. It mainly divided into four periods.
（1）Proto-English （the 5th century AD）[2]
The languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.
（2）Old English（AD 450—1100）[2]
The invaders' Germanic language replaced the indigenous Brythonic languages. （form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family, the other being Goidelic）The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings （is one of the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century.）who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England. The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.
（3）Middle English（AD 1066-1470）[2]
For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separated from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.
（4）Modern English（1500 up to the present）[2]
Modern English can be divided into two parts: early modern english(1500-1800)and late modern English. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardized London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardizing effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.
English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.
In 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significan t English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.
2.2 The history of American English
During the 17th century, or more precisely on May 14, 1607, the first English settlers landed in Virginia. This was a group of 104 London entrepreneurs and they established the first English colony in Jamestown. Later on, in 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers, settlers from England, landed in Massachusetts, and also brought the English language over the Atlantic Ocean to America and another variety of English was born, American English. This variety is the largest of all the English varieties, since as many as 70% of the native English speakers live in the US. American English has preserved a number of words and features from the English spoken in England at the time of the settlement, which have now been changed in British English.
The history of American English can be divided into the colonial (1607-1776), the national (1776-1898), and the international (1898-present) periods. During nearly four hundred years of use in North America, the English language changed in small ways in pronunciation and grammar but extensively in vocabulary and in the attitude of its speakers. English settlements along the Atlantic Coast during the seventeenth century provided the foundation for English as a permanent language in the New World. But the English of the American colonies was bound to become distinct from that of the motherland. When people do not talk with one another, they begin to talk differently. The Atlantic Ocean served as an effective barrier to oral communication between the colonists and those who stayed in England, ensuring that their speech would evolve in different directions.[3]
Americans also came cheek-to-jowl with "Amerindians" of several linguistic stocks, as well as French and Dutch speakers. They had to talk in new ways to communicate with their new neighbors. Moreover, the settlers had come from various districts and social groups of England, so there was a homogenizing effect: those in a given colony came to talk more like one another and less like any particular community in England. All these influences combined to make American English a distinct variety of the language. In the United States, there are also regional differences, and these are ultimately descendants of a mixture of accents spoken in the British Isles at the time of the settlement of America. Dialect boundaries in the US tend to run from east to west. The first immigrants settled along the Atlantic coast and they spread from east to west across the continent and took some dialect forms, for example words and pronunciation features, with them. The dialect areas in North America are much larger than they are in England, mainly because English has been spoken in England for about 1,500 years, but in America for only approximately 300 years. Because of America’s recent settlement, there has not been enough time for linguistic changes and this is why there are not so many dialect differences in this large country.
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English
English grammar is the set of rules within the English language itself. "An English grammar"(one kind of grammar system)is a specific study or analysis of these rules. In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes lexicology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. I mainly make analysis on the lexical and syntactical differences between British English and American English.
3.1 Lexical Differences
Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. Lexical differences mean relating to the words’ differences of a language.
3.1.1 The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms
Collective nouns such as “team, faculty, family, government” often take plural verb agreement and plural pronoun substitution in Britain English, but they nearly always take singular agreement and singular pronoun substitution in American English. There is a tendency in Britain English, to stress the individuality of the members, which is reflected in plural verb agreement and pronoun substitution, whereas American English Strongly tends to stress the unitary function of the group, which is reflected in singular verb and pronoun forms.[4] 6
Some examples:
Your team is doing well this year, isn’t it? (AmE)
Your team are doing well this year, aren’t they? (BrE)
3.1.2 Differences in Verb
In syntax, a verb is a word (part of speech) that usually denotes an action (bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments (subject, object).
3.1.2.1 Differences in the Inflectional Endings of Verbs
The past tense and past participle of the verbs are different in BrE and AmE.
The past tense and past participle of the verbs learn, spoil, spell, burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.) or regular (learned, spoiled, etc.). In BrE, the irregular and regular forms are current; in some cases (smelt, leapt) there is a strong tendency towards the irregular forms (especially by speakers using Received Pronunciation); in other cases (dreamed, leaned, learned) the regular forms are somewhat more common. In AmE, the irregular forms are never or rarely used (except for burnt and leapt).
Nonetheless, as with other usages considered nowadays to be typically British, the t endings are often found in older American texts. However, usage may vary when the past participles are actually adjectives, as in burnt toast.( Note that the two-syllable form learned ['lə:nid] usually written simply as learnt, is still used as an adjective to mean "educated", or to refer to academic institutions, in both BrE and AmE.)Finally, the past tense and past participle of dwell and kneel are more commonly dwelt and knelt on both sides of the Atlantic, although dwelled and kneeled are widely used in the US (but not in the UK).
In British English, the past tense of “get’’ is “got”, while American English usually use its past participle “gotten”.
For example,
A. John has got much better during the last week. (BrE)
B. John has gotten much better during the last week. (AmE)
According to the custom that British English usually uses “got” while American English “gotten”, we can quickly tell the nationality of the speaker. The former is British and the later is American. When Americans use “got”, they mean “own, possess and dominate”, such as the following two examples:
They’ve got no pride.
I’ve got plenty of material if I can just handle it.
3.1.2.2 Different use of present perfect tenses
Traditionally, BrE uses the present perfect tense to talk about an event in the recent past(express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment) and with the words already, just, and yet. For example:
British English:[5]
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:[5]
I just had lunch or I've just had lunch.
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? Or did you finish your homework yet?
In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect (to express a fact) or the simple past (to imply an expectation). This American style has become widespread only in the past 20 to 30 years; the British style is still in common use as well. In British English the present perfect is used to.
"I've just arrived home." / "I just arrived home."
"I've already eaten." / "I already ate." [6]
Recently, the American use of just with simple past has made inroads into BrE, most visibly in advertising slogans and headlines such as "Cable broadband just got faster".
Similarly, AmE occasionally replaces the pluperfect with the preterite. Also, US spoken usage sometimes, especially with the contracted forms, substitutes the conditional for the pluperfect (If I would have cooked the pie we could have had it for lunch), but this tends to be avoided in writing.[6]
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs
The following verbs show differences in transitivity between BrE and AmE.[6]
agree: transitive or intransitive in BrE, usually intransitive in AmE (agree a contract/agree to or on a contract). However, in formal AmE legal writing one often sees constructions like as may be agreed between the parties (rather than as may be agreed upon between the parties).
appeal(as a decision): usually intransitive in BrE (used with against) and transitive in AmE (appeal against the decision to the Court/appeal the decision to the Court).
cater("to provide food and service"): intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (to cater for a banquet/to cater a banquet).
claim: sometimes intransitive in BrE (used with for), strictly transitive in AmE.
protest: in the sense of "oppose", intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (The workers protested against the decision/The workers protested the decision). The intransitive protest against in AmE means, "to hold or participate in a demonstration against". The older sense "proclaim" is always transitive (protest one's innocence).
write: in BrE, the indirect object of this verb usually requires the preposition to, for example, I'll write to my MP or I'll write to her (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, for example, I'll write her a letter). In AmE, write can be used monotransitively (I'll write my congressman; I'll write him).
3.1.2.4 Different use of “have”.
British English usually uses “Have you any children?” or “Have you got any
children?” while Americans commonly express the same meaning with “Do you have any children?”Let us see some other examples.
How many brothers do you have? (AmE)
How many brothers have you? (BrE)
You don’t have much room here. (AmE)
You haven’t (got) much room here. (BrE)
3.1.3 Different use of function words
Function words (or grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words that are not function words are called content words (or lexical words): these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, although some adverbs are function words (e.g., then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but treat lexical words in general terms only. Now I will compare the different use of function words in BrE and AE in detail as follows.
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb
Differences between British and American English in prepositions are shown in the following two aspects: (1) different use of prepositions in the construction of phrases; (2) when using phrases, one will use a preposition while the other will omit it.
(1)Let us first review the different use of prepositions.
Your daughter’s name stands first in the list. (BrE)
Your daughter’s name stands first on the list. (AmE)
These dresses are in a sale. (BrE)
These dresses are on sale. (AmE)
He will come here at a quarter to three. (BrE, AmE)
He will come here at a quarter before /of / till three. (AmE)
She lives just round the corner (BrE).[7]4
She lives just around the corner (AmE).
Similarly, “five past nine” can be expressed in American English by “five after nine” or “nine five”. In front of “weekend” and “Christmas”, British English uses “at” or “over”, while American English adopts “over” or “on”.
At the weekend / Christmas (BrE)
Over the weekend / Christmas (BrE, AmE)
On the weekend / Christmas (AmE)
(2) Omitting preposition[8]2
In British English, before “day”, “week” or “certain day”, preposition “on” shall be used, while it is not so in American English.
The new term begins on September 1. (BrE)
The new term begins September 1. (AmE)
I’ll see you on Monday. (BrE)
I’ll see you Monday. (AmE)
In American English, when “home” is used as an adverb, the preposition “at” is not needed. But, in British English, “at” is required before “home”. Hence, “at home” is used in British English.
Is he home? (AmE)
Is he at home? (BrE)
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb
In linguistics, an auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. There are three types: Modal auxiliaries，have and go.
No matter in the frequency or the tendency of auxiliary verb, AmE differs from BrE. Their differences are stated as follows:.
(1)shall
Shall in BrE, is widely used in the fist person to raise questions, answer questions ,or to express future, while in AmE it is only used in the law file or informal style paper. In formal style paper, people usually use will or should. Such as:
Br.E:1)I shall tell you later.
Am.E:1)I will tell you later.
2)Shall I drink this now?
2)Should I drink this now?
(2)would[9]2
Would has two special usages in AmE, firstly it can show the usual action in the past. such as: When I was small, I would go there everyday.
However in BrE, the past tense or used to can express the past uaual action, therefore in BrE the above sentence should be changed into: When I was small, I went there everyday. Or When I was wmall, I used to go there everyday.
Secondly, would in AmE can express hypothesis in some informal language, quite like a kind of subjunctive mood, however in BrE not.
Try to compare:
Am.E:1)I wish I would have done it.
2)If I would have seen one, I would have bought it for you.
Br.E(it also the same with AmE):1)I wish I had done it.
2)If I had seen one, I would have bought it for you.
In Br.E, “would” and “will” can express suppose, while in Am.E the auxiliary verb “should” and “must” express supposition. Try to compare:
Br.E:1)That will be the postman at the door.
2)That would be zhongshan Road over there.
Am.E: 1)That must be (should be)the mailman at the door.
2)That should be(must be)Zhongshan Rood over there.
(3)used to
“Used to” in AmE is not seen as Modal auxiliary, but seen as notional word. To the opposite, in Br.E, used to is just seen as modal auxiliary, can offer or deny questions, also can be used as notional word but people use “do” to offer or deny questions. For example:
1)He used to go there.(notional verb)
Did he use to go there.(notional verb)
2)Used he to go there.(auxiliary verb)
He used not to go there.(auxiliary verb)
(4)ought to[9]6
“Ought to” is widely used in BrE to raise or deny questions, but in AmE use “should” to substitute for it, such as:
Br.E:1)Ought we to eat lunch?
Am.E:1)Should we eat lunch?
2)You ought not(oughtn’t) to have said that. 2)You shouldn’t have said that.
In AmE, ought to and used to are all used as notional verbs in the informal papers and such forms are said to be not standard forms. For example:
1)Did you ought to say that?
2)You didn’t ought to have said that.
(5) Different use of the indefinite pronoun “one”
In BrE we can use “one” to indicate the “one” of the former writing again while in AmE we usually use “he” or “his” to instead the “one” of the former writing. For instance:
One cannot succeed unless one works hard.(BrE)
One cannot succeed unless he works hard.(AmE)
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles[19]
(1)The omitting of articles
Most phrases of British English have articles, while those of American English do not have. The “the” in the standard expressions in British English “all the afternoon”, “all the winter”, “all the week”, “this time of the year”, ect. But the articles are usually omitted in American English. For example:
The swimming pools are open all summer.
I’ll be here all afternoon.
He has been gone all week.
British English will use articles in front of “sickness”, “river” and etc., while American English does not. For example,
British English expresses in the form of “the measles”, “the mumps”, “the flu”, “the Niagara Falls” and “the Black Creek”, while American English says “measles”, “mumps”, “flu”, “Niagara Falls” and “Black Creek”.
However, there are exceptions. In some expressions, British English does not use articles, while American English does.
BrE AmE
Go into hospital Go into the hospital
In hospital In the hospital
At university At the university
Sentences are as follows:
Next day, the rain began. (BrE)
The next day, the rain began. (AmE)
In future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (BrE)
In the future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (AmE)
(2) The position of articles
British English and American English are different from each other in the use of “a” or “an” with “half”. In British English, “a” follows “half”, for example, “half a dozen”, “half an hour”, “half a mile”, and “half a pound”. In American English, “a” is put in front of “half”, for example, “a half dozen”, “a half hour”, “a half mile” and “a half pound”.
3.2 Syntactical differences
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function. I will explain the syntactic differences as follows.
3.2.1Differences in compound object[20]
The Verb“ -to do” usually used as compound object in British English, While past participle or past participle phrase mostly used as compound object in American English. Try to compare:
1)He also had ordered his luggage to be labeled for crew.(Bronte.) (BrE)
2)Last year an American hotel manager ordered his quests evacuated after an anonymous bomb threat.(AmE)
3)I have a roll that was in dead storage during the war which I ordered put back in running order. (O' Hara) (AmE)
The two compound structures (compound object with past participle and compound object with –to do) are both used in the BrE and AmE, while the AmE use compound object more frequent ly than BrE. However, there are some differences in the routine usage of Verb related to this phrase structure. The verb “to order” usually linked with the compound structure with past participle in AmE, but linked with the compound structure with “verb -to do” in BrE.
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements[11]
Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of AmE to use to go plus bare infinitive. Speakers of BrE would instead use to go and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say I'll go take a bath, BrE speakers would say I'll go and have a bath. (Both can also use the form to go to instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.) Similarly, to come plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of AmE, where speakers of BrE would instead use to come and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say come see what I bought, BrE speakers would say come and see what I've bought (notice the present perfect tense: a common British preference).
As to whether a preposition is used before days denoted by a single word, British people would say she resigned on Thursday, while Americans often say she resigned Thursday, but both forms are common in American usage. Occasionally, in AmE the preposition is also absent when referring to months: I'll be here December (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech).But, it will say “I’ll be here on December.” in BrE.
In the UK, from is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say the new museum will be open from Tuesday, Americans most likely say the new museum will be open starting Tuesday. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern from A to B, which are used in both BrE and AmE.) A variation or alternative of this is the most American will say “the play opens Tuesday” and the most British will say “the play opens on Tuesday”. American legislators and lawyers always use the preposition of between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British colleagues do not. We can see such differences by making comparison between Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Disability Discrimination Act 1995.
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood used more in AmE than in BrE, which is mainly used in the formal style paper.
In subjunctive mood, American English will rarely reserve traditional subjunctive words.
I suggest that meeting be postponed. (AmE)
I suggest that meeting should be postponed. (BrE)
I wish I had done it. (AmE)
I wish I would have done it. (BrE)
4. The grammatical differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English
Black English also called African American Vernacular English which is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English.There are four points in which black English differs from British English.
1)Negation
In addition, negatives are formed differently from standard American English:
Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. It can be used where Standard English would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't and hasn't, a trait which is not specific to AAVE. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the U.S., some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that).[14] Ain't had its origins in common English, but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.
Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with Standard English, where a double negative is considered a positive (although this wasn't always so; see double negative). There is also "triple" or "multiple negation", as in the phrase I don't know nothing about no one no more, which would be "I don't know anything about anybody anymore" in Standard English.
In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (eg. Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothin' goin' on.)
While these are features that AAVE has in common with Creole languages,[15] Howe and Walker use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.
Some of these characteristics, notably doubl e negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries such as the has in has been are also characteristic of general colloquial American English.
2)The omission of copula in black English
You crazy! ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: She is my sister.
Only the forms is and are (the latter of which, in any case, is often replaced by is) can be omitted. These forms cannot be omitted when they are pronounced with a stress (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in Standard English cannot show contraction (and vice-versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to (BrE) I don't know where he because in Standard English the corresponding reduction I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (Though I don't know where he at is possible.) Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.[16]
3)Present-tense verbs uninflected for number/person
there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.[17]
4)The word it or is denoting the existence of something
This usage is equivalent to Standard English there in "there is", or "there are". It is also found in the English of the US South. Examples its a doughnut in the cabinet ("There's a doughnut in the cabinet") and It ain't no spoon ("There isn't a spoon", also "They ain't no spoon").[17]
5) Altered syntax in questions
Why they ain't growin'? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of standard English. Because of this, there is also no need for the auxiliary DO.[18]
To put it simply, we can summarize the grammatical differences between British and American daily English as follows[19]:
(1) Sometimes, British and American English use different grammatical forms to express the same meaning;
(2) Sometimes, the same grammatical form expresses different meanings in British and American English;
(3) In some structures, either British English or American English will use integrated grammatical form, while the other adopts the omitted form;
(4) Sometimes, American and British English use the same grammatical form to express the same concept and meaning.
However, one of them may have another expression form, while the other does not. We could only avoid misunderstanding by paying attention to those differences in our study.
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English
The English language changes as the rapid development of politics, economic, culture in Britain and American. After it goes through the three periods (old English, middle English and modern English),it also changes everyday, especially in the related ten years, the changes of English becomes more obvious. Although the English structure is not as obvious as the lexical development, it does not ignore. On the aspect of grammar, English experience the changes from the verb inflections of old English to use word in order to express meaning in the past 1500years, and English also become analytic language from synthetic language. Such experience makes English flexible, meanwhile it also broke the traditional grammar frame, the former disagreed rules transferred into acceptable English even native English. The speed on renewing lexical words is very fast.
On the whole, British English and American English fuse with each other, and they tend to be brief, clear and more flexible for use.
6．Conclusion
As the globalization and information world developed, more and more people from different countries use the same language―English to communicate and exchange ideas with each other. The above discussion about grammar difference between British English and American English is what I have found and concluded. Although there are many differences in detailed aspects in the use of daily British and American English, they are similar to each other in most of aspects. Therefore, they shall only be considered as different forms of the same language rather than two different languages. In addition, we cannot say which one is better or advanced. Any judgment or opinion that “British English is better or worse than American English” is biased. The purpose of this paper is to help English learners understand the two varieties better and eliminate some mistakes caused in communication or paper writing.
The differences between the British English and American English are caused by politics, economy, social life, culture, and geography. American English developed from British English, but it differs from British English. All in all, sinc e English is characterized by its huge vocabulary, great tolerance, and conciseness, it leaves little room for argument that English will be well on its way to be a diversified common language.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhu Min, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Mao Can、Gao YunPing and many others.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
[1] 周乐, 美式英语与英式英语比较与分析[J]. 湖南商学院外语系,2008.
[2] Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language
[3] blog.languagetranslation.com/public/item/118655
[4] 王振明和公丽艳，英式英语与美式英语的差异[J]. 山东教育学院学报,2002.
[5] esl.about.com/od/toeflieltscambridge/a/dif_ambrit.htm
[6]en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences#Use_of_tenses
[7] 孟宪友，英语与美语的差别对比研究[J]. 广州大学外国语学院英语系,2002.
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[15] Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited", Language Variation and Change 4 (3): 311-357
[16] Geoff Pullum, "Why Ebonics Is No Joke" Lingua Franca transcript, 17 October 1998, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
[17] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English#Negation
篇（5）
教育部办公厅在2004年4月发出《关于加强普通高等学校毕业设计（论文）工作的通知》，通知中强调：毕业设计（论文）旨在培养大学生探索真理，强化社会意识，提高综合实践能力，是衡量教学水平，学生毕业与学位资格认证的重要依据。教育部在2009年的《普通高等学校本科教学工作水平评估方案》中再次明确要求本科毕业设计（论文）“选题要紧密结合生产和社会实际，难度工作量适当，体现专业综合训练要求”。从2010年起至今北京城市学院国际语言文化学部英语（国际商务）专业进行了相关的改革研究与实践。结合毕业设计管理与指导实践，作者对积累的一些经验和存在的问题进行总结。
一、高校商务英语专业（方向）毕业论文的现状
高校商务英语专业毕业论文选题学术气氛浓厚、重复率高。多集中于“商务谈判的技巧”、“商标的翻译策略”、“商务广告的语言特色”等，与商务实践密切相关的文章寥寥无几。学生在选题上还是侧重于文学和文化，没有充分体现出商务英语的专业方向性。多数的商务英语专业学生写作内容脱离实际，没有注重毕业论文的自身价值与实际意义。缺乏实证分析，不会运用所学的知识对实际问题进行研究，有的同学撰写的内容与将来所从事的商务活动毫无关系。大多数学生都是根据指导教师布置的论文题目独自搜索文献、分析整理资料、缺乏了团队协作、限制了思想火花的碰撞。如果毕业设计能够以团队的形式来完成撰写必将对学生的实践能力、团队协作能力、组织与沟通交流能力的提升起到非常大的帮助。
二、商务英语专业毕业论文改革探索与实践
1.毕业论文改革的形式和内容。
掌握商务文书的基本知识、写作方法、写作技能，能运用娴熟、得心应手地撰写各类商务文书是衡量现代商务工作者的素质、能力的重要标准。根据我校英语专业国际商务方向学生实际情况和商务文书撰写的难易程度，英语（国际商务）学生选择商务报告中的调查报告（SurveyReport）开展毕业论文改革。调查报告具体要求：调查报告由2人共同完成，学生需进行社会调查、访谈或其他调研方式。要求调查报告的字数不少于5000字英文，其中含1000字中文概要，调查问卷样卷和访谈提纲样卷为中英文对照版。
2.行业人士进行调查报告撰写的指导和培训。
为了帮助学生更好地掌握商务文书的撰写规范，行文要求，专业安排了行业人士对调研报告的撰写进行了指导和培训。调查报告撰写的培训方案：调查报告撰写指导分为三部分：第一部分对调查报告的定义、结构、撰写过程进行宏观指导；第二部分主要讲解调查报告的研究方法、资料的收集与研究、问卷和访谈内容的设计；第三部分调查报告的选题和开题指导。
3.调查报告双导师指导的管理与监控。
毕业论文“双导师制”指导模式是依据北京城市学院办学目标和特色，结合商务英语专业学生特点，通过校内英语指导教师与来自其他学院跨学科或者行业的合作导师“双导师”联合指导，重点实施理论学习环节、调研环节、理论与实践整合环节等双导师式培养的毕业论文指导模式。选题环节。毕业论文的选题是做好毕业论文工作的首要环节，指导教师严格把好选题关是保证毕业论文质量的前提条件。校外合作导师提出若干个用人单位在实际工作操作中遇到的真实问题。毕业论文选题来自于实际工作过程中的问题，既体现了实际应用价值，又能很好地锻炼学生的实践能力。理论学习环节。为了让学生有更充裕的时间进入第七学期的学习和第八学期工作岗位的实习，我们将理论环节的学习提前到夏季小学期。由校内指导教师和行业合作导师进行联合讲解。学生在双导师的指导下，完成选题、开题报告准备等环节。调研实践环节。在夏季小学期结束后的暑期，学生要开展为期约4周的调研活动。在调研实习期间，由实习单位的校外指导教师，监督和指导学生的调研实习实践活动，补充学生理论学习的缺陷，提高学生商务实操能力。在这一环节，校内英语指导教师也需要及时与校外指导老师沟通，协助学生完成调研实践环节。理论与实践整合环节。学生在调研实践活动后，即完成问卷发放和访谈活动，回到学校进行调研报告的撰写。学生需要在这个环节听取校内英语指导教师和校外指导教师的指导建议，展开数据的统计分析，以及调研报告的撰写。双导师综合评定给出毕业设计的成绩。答辩环节。采用校内老师和行业人士联合组成答辩专家组，对调查报告中涉及的理论环节和实践环节进行全面系统的提问，双导师以及答辩专家组综合评定后给出每组同学毕业论文成绩。对于学生各项成绩的评定，第一指导教师占总成绩的60%，第二指导教师占40%。专业要求学生毕业设计完成情况严格进行前期、中期检查与考核。如果因为教师指导不力，学生没有圆满完成毕业设计，将追究校内导师的责任。对于毕业设计工作不认真、投入不够、完成质量差而又达不到专业培养目标的学生，学部将根据毕业设计要求的有关规定严肃处理。毕业论文“双导师制”指导模式强调了基础理论知识和专业实践知识的有机结合，弥补了高校英语教师缺乏商务实战经验的弊病。“双导师制”将显著增强学生的专业能力和社会适应能力，使得学生在进入企业后，能够更快地适应环境，从而直接进入工作状态。学生通过这种模式的训练，巩固发展了专业知识和技能，也为日后的就业打下扎实的基础。
4.调查报告的评审标准要适当调整。
毕业论文评价体系是引导毕业论文工作的杠杆和指挥棒。重点考察学生毕业论文的原创性、实效性，即毕业论文必须是学生经过努力研究真实做出来的，解决了实际工作中的某一个问题，比较真实地反映了学生的实际工作能力与水平。在评价程序上，整个撰写过程采用双导师（校内英语教师与行业专家）综合评定和指导，在评审的各个环节均采用英语教师和行业专家双评审制度。评分标准也相应地区别于传统的学术论文，例如在选题上要评定“选题是否具有较强的现实意义，符合实践性、科学性、创新性要求”；调查问卷的设计上要评定“调查问卷的结构、内容设计科学、合理，较为清楚地说明调查问卷的发放及回收情况”；数据综合分析能力上要评定“能够灵活运用多种形式的图表对调查问卷所得结果和数据进行恰当、科学、有效分析”；在调查报告整体质量上要评定“研究结果摘要部分：论述清晰；正文部分：理论运用正确，数据分析科学、合理，论述充分，结构严谨，条理清晰；结论与建议部分：结论正确，具有创新性，实用性。调查报告结果具有一定的参考、应用价值。全文专业术语使用准确。符号统一，编号齐全，书写规范，图表完备、整洁、正确”；毕业论文的答辩和评审标准都结合实际进行了适当的调整以保证评价的得体性和公平性。
三、政策建议
1.深化毕业论文以及配套商务英语教学改革。
商务英语专业应该以毕业论文改革为契机，不断深化商务英语教学改革，整合各种实践教学资源，使教学理论、人才培养模式与人才培养目标达成一致。在商务英语教学过程中，可以采取多种方式培养学生的商务实践能力和创新能力，例如不断加强校企合作力度；学校与企业和政府建立实践教学合作关系；请行业专家到学校授课或开办讲座；提倡英语教师带领学生到企业现场教学；鼓励英语社团组织承接社会项目；等等。
2.加强实践型教师队伍建设。
学校要通过各种途径增强教师实践意识和实践能力的培养，例如，鼓励教师带领学生参加社会课题研究、对专业教师进行实践教学培训等，并且纳入对教师的考核体系中；学校派青年教师到企事业单位、外企外贸公司挂职锻炼，以此来增进教师对社会的了解，要求教师在授课的过程中渗透实践内容，培养学生的实践能力和创新意识。学校也可以将具有创业经历和实践经验的各类人员融入到教师队伍里。通过上述措施，强化学校的实践人才培养特色，加快相关教学方法的改进与教学条件的改善步伐。
3.毕业论文的体裁和形式多样化。
毕业论文体裁可以多样化，充分体现学生的实践能力和专业特点，体裁不仅局限于传统的学术论文，而且可以将其拓展为商务实用文书的撰写和商务情景的模拟。前者包括标书的撰写、市场调查报告、广告策划、营销方案等，后者包括商务谈判、国际会展、商务洽谈、产品推荐会情景模拟等。毕业论文的各种体裁和形式均采用团队协作的模式，使学生能够各尽所长、发挥集体的智慧。
参考文献：
[2]教育部.教育部办公厅关于加强普通高等学校毕业论文（设计）工作的通知（教高厅[2004]14号）[R].
[3]李志生.建筑工程招投标实务与案例分析[M].北京：机械工业出版社，2011.
[4]刘晓辉，魏俊玲.浅谈经济全球化中商务英语人才的培养[J].中国商贸，2009，（15）.
篇（6）
2、在这个领域里找一个合适的话题，比如，要写文学翻译的话，可以找一本感兴趣的，有中英文的书籍，对这本书的翻译做一个多译本的比较、对这本书出现的某些词汇和表达法的翻译做一个总结，探究翻译规律，如有人对《红楼梦》里食物、服饰、诗歌等等的英文翻译做一个总结和鉴赏、对不好的译本。反面教材做一个翻译失误的分析；
3、让现实照进梦想，在有了想法之后，分析其可能性，被前人写滥了的，已经有权威研究的，最好不要去挑战，除非从一个新的视角去做研究，不落前人窠臼，参考文献太少的不要写，本科毕业论文不具有太大的权威性，必须得有足够的文献做支撑；
篇（7）
开题报告是作者将自己初步选定的题目之内容、思想等，以书面形式向毕业论文答辩委员会的导师和听众作一书面汇报和简要说明。
写开题报告目的：一是作者能将所选课题的内容框架、研究现状、选题意义、重难点和创新点、文化结构、主要引征材料及参考书目作一总体思路的勾划，作者对该选题的前因后果，来龙去脉进行有序的组合清理，为撰写毕业论文作好充分准备。二是作者能广泛听取他人的宝贵意见，并在此基础上重新理顺论文思路，使其结构更趋完整，内容更趋翔实。
开题报告的基本组成部分
1、毕业论文题目
论文题目用中英文撰写，汉语在前，英语在后。目的是限定毕业论文的大致范围和方向，即论题。应力求简明扼要，引人注目。一般不超过15—20字。必要时可使用副标题。
2、本选题的研究目的
以中学英语教学法方向为例，则须说明要解决英语教与学，理论与实践等方面的哪些问题，这些问题应是在教学实践中比较突出又难以解决的问题;或是前人从未解决的，并且能填补某一领域的空白的问题。
3、本选题在国内外同行业中的研究现状
国内外学者对该选题曾作过哪些方面的相关研究，本课题在国内外研究中处于何等地位?是属于未开拓的领域，还是在前人已经研究过的基础上作深层次的研究?国内外有哪些论文、论著涉及到本选题的内容?
4、研究本选题的动机及意义
提出本选题的根据是什么?为什么提出这个选题?本选题的研究有什么意义?从理论的角度看，本选题有哪些方面的突破，其价值取向是什么?本选题与相关领域之间的关系如何?对英语教学会起什么作用?从实践的角度看，本选题是否有助于英语教师和学生把握教与学的动向，使人们在英语教与学的过程中少走弯路，是否有利于提高英语教学质量?
5、本选题研究的主要观点、内容、重点和难点
本选题研究有哪几个重要观点，其特点是什么?研究的重点在哪几个方面?研究的难点在何处?怎样从理论与实践出发，对英语教学进行更深入的理论探讨?如何结合英语教学实际对改进英语教学作对策思考?本选题有哪几个新观点?是否填补了国内外同行业研究中的空白?
6、本选题的撰写框架
框架可用提纲形式表述，一般构成如下：
引言：提出问题、摆明观点。
论点：分析问题与阐明自己的观点。大致包括：问题的原因及危害性;解决问题的重要性和必要性;从理论上来论证问题的解决方法，并联系教学实际阐述解决问题的策略与做法。另外，利用实际数据作为论据，证明方法的有效性。
结论：通过对问题的分析论证，其结果如何?对人们在英语教与学中有何指导意义?有哪些方面需要继续研究的?它还有什么不足之处?
参考书目：参考书目一般是英文参考书在前，中文参考书在后，以字母拼音顺序排列。
7、研究基础
作者在选择该题之前作过哪些方面的学习、研究或写过什么文章?说明能如期完成毕业论文撰写的理由。
8、研究方法
常见的研究方法包括：观察、调查、描述、实验、实证、文献、个案研究、比较研究、经验总结、实践反思、测量、量化、行动研究、表列、图示、内容分析等方法。例如：实验的方法就是对英语教学班级进行实验对比;调查的方法就是通过调查表、询问、问答等形式寻找解决问题的方法。
一个课题根据具体情况可能需要一种或多种研究方法。
9、撰写步骤及阶段任务
包括：选题及开题报告初稿、正式开题报告及提纲、完成初稿、二稿、三稿、定稿等、何时论文答辩等。
开题报告中文范例
标题： 英语隐喻汉译
(On Translating English Metaphors into Chinese)
1) 本选题国内外研究现状
对隐喻的研究在国外已形成较为完整的体系，其中以Lakoff & Johnson (1987)的研究最具有代表性，而对于其汉译的研究却凤毛麟角。国内对于隐喻的研究主要受Lakoff & Johnson理论的影响，其中以胡壮麟、朱永生为主要代表。在隐喻翻译的研究方面，李国南(1990)，胡文仲(1994)对于英汉成语或谚语中的习用性比喻的喻体进行过比较，并探讨了其翻译的途经。在近期出版的刊物中有对队喻翻译研究方面的文章，其中以徐莉娜的《隐喻的翻译》为主要代表。但其研究的范围也只是局限于文学、修辞用语的隐喻翻译。
2)本选题的意义、重点、难点及创新点
意义：本选题突破了历来将隐喻的汉译局限在诗学、修辞学、文学等范畴。由于“翻译是跨语言、跨文化的交际活动”(陈宏薇：1996)，翻译对各民族之间文化的传播起着非常重要贡献的作用。我们对日常用语中隐喻的汉译研究应与英语语言文化背景的研究结合起来。
重点：本选题重在研究隐喻在英语日常用语中存在的普遍性、可译性及其翻译的方法。
难点：怎样从文化交际的角度对日常用语中的隐喻的汉译进行深入的理论探讨。
创新点：研究英语日常用语中的隐喻的汉译理论及其方法。
3)论文的结构及简要说明
1. 引言
2. 英语日常用语中隐喻存在的普遍性
2.1 隐喻的定义
2.2 关于隐喻研究的常用书语
2.3 英语日常用语中的隐喻
3. 英语日常用语中隐喻的特点
3.1 日常用语中隐喻的分类
3.1.1 习用语
3.1.2 新生隐喻
3.2 英语隐喻与汉语隐喻
3.3 英语日常用语中隐喻的可译性
4. 英语日常用语中的隐译汉译
4.1 翻译的标准
4.2 日常用语中隐喻汉译的难点
4.3 日常用语中隐语汉译的过程
4.4 日常用语中隐喻汉译的基本方法及原则
5. 日常用语中隐喻汉译的方法与技巧
5.1 直译法
5.2 意译法
5.3 转译法
5.4 直译和意译结合法
4) 参考书目
Brodkey, Linda. Review: The Language in Metaphors. ( College English Jan, v50 pp 89-94), 1988.
Jin Di & Eugene, A. Nida. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation Publishing Company, 1984.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. Metaphors We Live by Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Nida, Eugene A. & William, Reyburn. Meaning Across Cultures, Maryknoll of N.Y. Orbis Book, 1981.
…
陈宏薇 《新实用汉译英教程》，武汉：湖北教育出版社，1996。
陈文伯 《英语成语和汉语成语》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1980。
邓炎昌、刘润清《语言与文化》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1989。
张培基等《英汉翻译教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，1983。
篇（8）
中图分类号：G642.0 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1674-9324（2013）22-0196-03
长期以来英语教学的目标和方法一直是我国大学英语，尤其是专业英语教学所探讨的一个问题。多年以来的应试教育已经给受教育者留下了难以学以致用的问题。不少人拿到四、六级证书依然不能跟外国人交流，不能用英文写作，成了一个语言的拿证者却无法动笔动嘴的“人才”（林莉兰，2006）！已有一些从事英语教学与教育的工作者专门讨论过这方面的问题（田强等，2006；王晓军，2005；张翼翼，2006；贾国栋，2006；周爽等2006）。本文根据我院这几年来在专业英语和专业课双语教学的教学实践，尤其是让工科本科生用英语进行毕业论文写作和进行论文答辩的实践教学尝试，从英语教学延伸和应用的实效性角度探讨了如何检验大学英语教学的效果，如何确定英语教学目标，以及实现这种目标的方法。我们中国地质大学（北京）能源学院一直在专业英语和双语教学的手段和实效性方面进行着探讨。2004年我院获得了学校在“工科教学基地”项目上的资助。为配合国家在石油领域“走出去”的可持续发展战略、培养具有英语实用水平的工科本科毕业生也成了我院教学工作的一个重要任务和目标。我们利用我院大部分教师都有在国外留学、进修和培训方面的经历这个优势，积极开展了密切结合专业的专业英语和双语教学的教学实践。我们鼓励用先进的教学理念进行大胆实践，积累教学经验。在2006届部分工科毕业生中让部分同学用英语进行论文写作和答辩，通过导师的指导，试图将其作为专业英语和双语教学在专业实践方面的延伸。这样做，一方面是希望通过用英语进行论文的撰写和答辩提高同学们英文应用水平，另一方面也为同学们毕业后进入企业或科研岗位、甚至走出国门打下良好的基础。在这次试点中我们在我院资源勘查工程和石油工程两个专业选取了几名优秀学生，从毕业论文写作到答辩全程采用英语。这对学生提出了比较高的要求，要求学生比较熟练或基本掌握专业英语的语法、专业词汇、写作技巧和写作规范等多方面的知识。当然，表达能力也能在答辩的过程中得到充实和提高，对话能力在提问过程中也能实践、发挥和检验。从论文写作和答辩的结果来看，这次尝试是成功的。这几名同学论文的写作用词和语法正确，论文宣读及回答问题都比较清晰流利。同学们和指导教师都从中受到了鼓舞，说明我院的专业英语和双语教学取得了明显的成效。归纳起来，这几年来我们在专业英语和双语教学实践中做法、尝试以及同学们的反馈包括以下几个方面。
一、专业英语和双语课教材
在我院的专业英语和专业课“双语教学”实践中，学院要求在国际通用性的专业课方面应尽量使用外文原版教材，采取多种方式使用外文教材。如专业英语课在教材选用上的做法是从国外的原版教科书上找到适合同学英文能力的相关文章进行讲授；环境地质学和现代试井分析双语课使用了原版的英文教材。
二、授课方法
专业英语授课过程中不是满堂灌，而是让同学自己阅读翻译和讲解，一方面可以检测同学是否预习，另一方面发现同学们在哪些方面存在理解有误的地方，再有重点、有针对性地进行讲解。这种方法效果较好，既激发了同学们学习专业英语的兴趣，同时也在实践中提升和改进了我们的专业英语教学法。在环境地质学和油藏工程这两门课双语教学中，老师以中文和英文交叉、结合进行综合讲解，让所有同学参与到教学中来。让同学们上台用英语讲解自己的观点和见解，大家对一些有争议的问题共同用英语讨论，共同学习。在实践过程中帮助同学们克服了在众人面前讲英语的恐惧心理。在交流沟通过程中英语听说能力得到了提高。这种教学过程是实践“课堂教学应以学生为中心”的教学理念的有效形式。
三、双语课在提高学生学习英语兴趣和水平中的作用
有的同学说，起初对双语教学就有几分好奇，而在刚接触到双语教学课程时，没想到却有些不适应，在经过一段时间的学习之后，发现双语教学比一般的外语教学更能激发兴趣，至少与普通外语教学相比是这样的。双语教学在我院还正在全面展开，可以说现阶段还是处在尝试阶段，但我们确实能体会到它的可行性、有效性和必要性。有的同学还说，大学四年的学业已结束，总感觉以前的外语课还没能使我们的听说读写能力加强多少，反倒是在接受过双语教学之后，发现自己的外语水平有很大提高，课堂上的师生互动使我们敢于用英语和他人进行交流。
四、用英文进行毕业论文写作的作用
用英文进行毕业论文写作能让学生更多的掌握英语的实用知识，可以提高学生学习英语的积极性。与普通的英语学习不同，毕业设计关乎学生的学士学位，学生对它的重视程度会大大提高，特别是专业英语知识。用英文进行毕业论文写作涉及到英语知识的方方面面，从单词的词义到句法的运用，再到成篇构思甚至语言的概括表达。写作的过程就是英语知识的再现和学习效果的过程，也就是提高英语水平的实践过程。同学们说在毕业论文的外国文献翻译过程中，深刻地感受到了专业英语的重要性。尽管我国的科技水平提高得很快，但是在石油工程领域，我国的科技水平仍与国外的先进水平有一定的差距，所以，客观上要求同学们现在和以后不得不有直接阅读外文专业文献的能力，从国外先进的技术中找到我们需要的知识，为我们的国家服务。
五、用英语进行毕业论文答辩的作用
答辩材料的准备和台上的演讲，这些都需要较高的口语能力，经历了这次答辩，不仅提高了口语的表达能力，最重要的是同学们有了勇气去说出英语，这是最大的收获，也是同学们学习语言的最终目的――交流。用英语进行答辩的目标和过程对于提高学生交际能力和综合应用语言能力有重要意义。
六、专业英语与就业的关系
随着我国改革开放程度的不断加深，以及中国加入了世界贸易组织，大量的国外企业涌入中国投资，设立公司，而英语是国际公认的通用语言，因此需要大量双语人才。同学们已注意到在这一届的毕业生找工作的时间段内，越来越多的外国或外资企业也来到我们学校召开宣讲会，希望可以招聘到合适的有能力的毕业生加入他们的公司。招聘的第一道门槛就是英语能力，这恰恰是我们过去的软肋。还有石油领域的国有企业进军海外的石油开发项目越来越多，同样需要大量懂英语的大学毕业生。同学们说“既然这方面的缺口这么大，我们更应该提高我们的英语能力，这既是对市场需求的响应，同时使我们以后的就业前景更光明更广阔”。我们认为大学英语教学目标，不是过四、六级英语考试，而是“可以用英文进行毕业论文写作和答辩”。这个目标里面自然包含了“听、说”能力，并且体现了学生综合应用英语的能力。专业英语和专业课双语教学是实现这个教学目的的有效手段。实践中可对低年级同学较早提出这个目标来引起他们在思想上的重视，从而通过综合效应实现大学英语教学水平的提高。当然，目前还只是少数同学具备这样培养的条件。
鸣谢：本文在成文过程中得到了我校长宣教授的指点和帮助，深表谢意。
参考文献：
[1]林莉兰.大学英语口语教学刍议[J].中国高等教育，2006，（5）.
[2]田强，李洁红，李小红.略论英语教育与几种基本教育概念的关系[J].科教论坛，2006，（1）.
[3]田强.关于我国英语教育的“应试教育”模式的反思[J].科教论坛，2006，（1）.
[4]王晓军.贯彻“大学英语课程教学要求”提高英语教学质量[J].中国地质教育，2005，（1）.
篇（9）
毕业论文是商务英语专业教学计划的最后一个环节，也是对学生2年半学期各门课程学习效果的检查.其主要目的是:
1、培养学生的英语阅读、写作能力及运用商务知识分析问题和解决问题的能力，达到学以致用的目的。
2、检查学生对所学专业理论知识和基本技能的掌握程度，并将论文成绩作为学生能否毕业的主要依据之一。
3、训练学生搜集运用资料的技能，同时培养学生理论联系实际，增强独立思考问题和解决问题的能力。
二、 论文写作要求:
1、以英文/汉语完成论文写作。
2、字数要求不低于3000个单词或字， 统一采用A4(210x297mm)页面复印纸单面打印.其中上边距2.8cm，下面距2.5cm，左边距2.5cm，右边距2.5cm，页眉1.6cm页脚1.5cm装订线0.5cm.字间距为标准，行间距为1.25倍行距.页眉内统一为:用5号宋体
3、论文的内容要与本专业所要求的知识和技能相结合，要求论述者阅读一定量的英文和中文资料，能够对所有的资料进行合理删减、组织和编辑，掌握论文撰写的结构与布局。要求语言流畅，层次清晰，论点明确，论据充分。具有以下特性:
1) 科学性:观点正确，论据充分可靠，结构合理，能反映出学生对本学科知识系统掌握的程度及其某一问题有较深理解很认识
2) 实用性:选题应该具有现实意义和学术价值，应该体现出分析问题解决问题的能力水平
3) 逻辑性:论证应该有力，层次应该分明，逻辑应该严密，结构应该完整合理
4) 技术性:应该具有收集整理运用材料的能力，语言表达应该清晰准确，格式应该规范
4、写作时间安排:
1月14日:学生与导师见面选题和开题
1月15日-3月25日学生写作，提交提纲，初稿，导师修改并将完成情况向系里汇报
3月31号前根据导师的修改意见完成第二稿交导师修改
4月7号前完成定稿并按照要求打印装订成册.打印3份，交系里2份
4月8号-4月13号准备答辩，原则上采用英语答辩
2007年4月14号论文答辩，原则上采用英语答辩
5:论文成绩评定:采用5级记分制，及优秀，良好，中等，及格和不及格五等.其中优秀没，良好等次的人数分别按不高于15%，20%的比例评定.终结成绩必须经指导老师学院毕业论文指导小组认定.
6:特别说明:
毕业论文写作是严肃的事情.严禁抄袭剽窃他人论文.一经发现此次论文成绩判为0分.
三、 论文选题方向:
1、商务英语教学改革的方向，途径，课程设置等
2、商务英语教学在新形势下的影响和意义;
3、我国贸易的现状及其发展方向
4、商务英文翻译技巧;
5、江西招商引资探讨及其对策
6.WTO保护期过后对我国的影响;
四、 论文设计与拟定的程序:1、指导教师的帮助下，根据本指导书提供的选题范围，从中选择论文方向，确定题目。(注:选择其他的题目，需与指导教师商议确定)
2、 搜寻与本人论文题目相关的资料，文献，形成论文大纲，注意论文结构安排的合理性。
3、 论文结构:包括题目，中英文摘要和关键词，目录和正文. 详见后面附件
附件1:
外语系英语专业(高职)毕业论文选题(商英专业)
1. 《商务英语课程设置的探讨》
2. 《跨文化因素对英汉翻译的影响》
3. 《商务英语的特点及翻译技巧》
4. 《商务英语函电在对外贸易中的作用》
5. 《单证员在国际贸易中的地位》
6. 《商务英语函电翻译技巧》
7. 《商务谈判中英语的重要性》
8. 《浅谈出口结汇风险的防范》
9. 《中国退税制度的改革及其影响》
10. 《商标名称的翻译与策略》
11. 《外贸企业信用风险管理与控制》
12. 《2007年外资银行在我国本土注册探讨》
13. 《我国利用国际贷款/国际援助现状分析》
14. 《WTO与我国反倾销探讨》
15. 《我国对外直接投资之现状》
16. 《内陆地区对外贸易发展策略研究》
17. 《中印两国两国对外贸易战略分析》
18. 《人民币升值对我国出口贸易的影响》
19. 《浅谈商务英语写作时避免修饰语错位的方法》
20. 《商务函电翻译的用词技巧》
21. 《外商直接在华投资探讨》
22. 《社会文化迁移对中国式英语的影响》
23. 《我国外贸出口品牌战略的实施与研究》
24. 《商务英语专业口语课程教学探讨》
25. 《入世对我国农产品贸易的影响与对策研究》
26. 《应对经济全球化，加快我国企业跨国经营》
27. 《英语写作中常见中式英语分析》
28. 《入世商务英语写作的研究》
29. 《制单工作在国际结算中的地位》
30. 《关税壁垒与非关税壁垒探讨》
31. 《浅谈实质利益谈判法》
32. 《国际电子商务发展面临的新问题》
33. 《商务英语写作中的错误与商务英语写作教学之间的关系》
34. 《清算所在期货市场上的地位》
35. 《跨国公司在华扩张模式透析》
36. 《汉译英中遇到新词语的译法问题》
37. 英汉互译中词义的不对应(文化意义、风格意义、修辞意义等)
38. 我国市场经济国家地位与反倾销
39. 如何防范信用证诈骗
40. 我国中小企业开拓国际市场之探讨
41. "10+1"自由贸易区未来前景展望
42. 汉语中新词汇的翻译技巧
43. 商务英语的特征与翻译
44. 珠江三角洲外贸现状及存在的问题
45. 南昌现利用外资纵谈
46. 广州/深圳等地区三资企业结构分析
47. 浅谈广州等地区外贸企业的困境与出路
48. 浅谈广州等地区出口产品结构的市场分布
49. 商务英语专业毕业生就业岗位之探讨
50. 单证员跟单员等资格证书现状思考
51. 礼仪在商务谈判中的作用
52. 跨国公司的本土化经营战略及其实施
53. 中国在亚洲区域合作中的地位和作用
54. 延长我国加工贸易国内价值链问题探析
55. 中国贸易的现状和前景
56. 我国西部地区引进外资问题研究
57. 人民币业务对外开放之探讨
58. 浅谈涉外合同英语特色
59. 海外投资与出口贸易的相互关系
60. 文化和地理因素对外商在中国直接投资的影响
61. 绿色壁垒对关税壁垒的替代效应研究
62. 新贸易保护主义的政策调整与我国贸易发展
63. 贸易磨檫及其解决机制研究
64. UCP600-信用证领域的新规则探讨
65. 论的适用范围及总则
66. 浅谈下卖方的知识产权担保义务
67. 我国纺织业出口竞争秩序现状分析与对策探讨
68. 浅谈来料加工与进料加工的利弊
69. 经纪佣金商或场内经纪人在期货交易中的地位
70. 浅谈商检证书在国际贸易中的作用
附件2 开题报告格式
商务学院
高职毕业设计(论文)开题报告
题目名称: 中国家庭企业管理创新研究
题目性质:
研究论文
学生姓名:
XXX
专
业:
工商管理
学
院:
XXXX
年
级:
04级
指导教师:
XXX
一、
选题背景
随着我国经济的高速发展，以家族企业为主的民营企业也得到了快速发展和壮大，在国民经济中发挥了越来越重要的作用。但是，与此同时，我国的家族企业也暴露出越来越多的问题，如家长式的管理方法、企业基础管理制度不健全和后续发展无力等诸多问题。这些问题不仅制约着我国家族企业的发展壮大，而且严重影响到我国经济的健康快速的发展，因此，研究我国现阶段家族企业如何进行管理创新，以最大限度地调动家族企业员工的积极性，从而实现家族企业生产要素优化配置，促进家族企业持续发展已显得尤为紧迫。
二、研究的基本内容，拟解决的主要问题、研究步骤、方法
本文从我国家族企业的实际情况出发，以管理创新的理论为指导，对我国家族企业如何进行行之有效的管理创新进行深入地研究。首先评述了国内外学者对家族企业管管理创新含义的不同看法，提出了家族企业管理创新的含义、构成要素及内在机理，认为我国家族企业进行管理创新的有效性在于有利于更好地实现家族企业的经营目标，有利于充公调动企业员工尤其非家族成员的积极性和创造性。
其次，分析了我国现阶段家族企业管理创新的现状及存在的问题，指出了我国家族企业管理模式存在诸多不足，如在管理创新过程中仍然存在家长式决策、缺乏战略管理和基础薄弱等诸多问题，所有这些在客观上要求创建一种新的管理模式以促进家族企业健康快速发展。
再次，要创建一种适合我国家族企业实情的管理模式，就必须全面准确地把握好我国家族企业所面临的外部环境。因此，本文指出了我国家族企业开展管理创新面临着外部环境的特殊性和复杂性。
三、研究工作进度
1、教师报题(2006.11.1----11.15)
2、网上公布毕业设计题目和指导教师(2006.11.20)
3、学生选题(2006.11.20---12. 15)
4、落实任务(学生与导师见面，交电子邮箱地址)(2006.12. 1---12. 25)
5、学生上交开题报告(纸字稿)(2006.12.25----2007.1.15)
6、中期论文检查(交电子稿) (2007.4月1日前)
7、论文上交(纸字稿附电子稿)(2007.4.15----2007.5.1)
8、07届毕业设计答辩(评定学生成绩)(2007.6月初)
9、07届优秀论文评定(2007.6.15)
10、07届优秀论文汇报会(2007.6下旬)
四、主要参考文献
[1]顾文静，温州民营企业实行委托---制的障碍分析，经济管理。2002.2
[2]甘德安，中国家族企业研究，中国社会科学出版社，2002年版
篇（10）
［中图分类号］G642.4 ［文献标识码］A ［文章编号］1009－5349（2012）02－0195－02
引言
根据开放教育本科英语（教育方向）教学计划的规定，学员在基本修完本专业规定的必修课和选修课后，进入以撰写毕业论文为主的集中实践环节。教学实践设计环节即毕业论文设计是开放教育本科英语专业教育方向的一个极为重要的环节。在本文中，笔者基于近五年的毕业论文指导实践基础，阐述了开放教育英语本科毕业论文的特点，分析了毕业论文写作中存在的问题和不足之处，并在此基础上提出了相应的对策与建议。
一、开放教育本科英语专业毕业论文的特点
开放教育本科英语教育专业学员所写的毕业论文除了学术性（scholarly）、创新性（original）、规范性（formal）这几个毕业论文的基本特征外，还应体现英语教育的职业性（professional）和过程性。
（一）毕业论文的设计应体现理论联系教育实践原则
所谓“学有所用”，学员毕业论文的选题要结合自己的课堂教学实践，真正解决本人在教学实践中遇到的客观存在的问题。毕业论文指导教师应就“教学行为研究”的基本要求和原则面向全体学员以讲座或课程的形式进行指导。整篇毕业论文至少要体现有四次教学研究记录或教学日记；要有一次课堂教学的录像或录音；要有原始调查问卷，或座谈的录音等，以保证教育教学这一职业性的凸显。
（二）毕业论文的设计应该体现过程性原则
整个毕业论文设计必须经过问题分析、方案设计、项目实施、项目评估和项目报告几个阶段。学员的研究必须针对其课堂中确确实实反映出的问题，方案的设计必须符合要求，实施阶段必须严格监控，保证有一个月的实施时间，指导教师对学生的研究要如实评估，项目报告，亦即论文必须符合论文的写作规范，要体现指导过程。整个设计环节由5个环节组成：
1.项目启动：指导教师可采用集体或分散等指导方式，介绍研究原则和研究方法，布置研究任务；
2.问题分析和方案设计：学员分析自己课堂教学中反映出的问题，设计问题解决方案；
3.项目实施：学员通过课堂教学具体实施方案；
4.项目评估：学员运用评估手段和方法，对项目的事实情况及结果进行评估；
5.项目报告：学员根据论文写作规范，用英文写出正文4000词左右的项目报告，同时提供项目实施过程中的所有原始材料。
在整个论文的写作过程中，项目启动是整个论文写作的理论基础；问题分析和方案设计确定论文研究方向；项目实施是论文实用价值体现的关键环节；项目评估是对论文学术价值的提炼；项目报告是对整个写作痕迹的保留。这五个环节环环相扣，缺一不可，相辅相成，层层递进。
二、撰写开放教育本科英语专业毕业论文存在的问题及其对策
毕业论文写作对于开放教育本科英语专业的学员来说非常具有挑战性，因为除了完成一般毕业论文所要完成的各个环节以外，英语专业的学生还需用英文进行毕业论文的写作。要想顺利完成英语专业毕业论文设计,学员要从论文的选题、时间安排及写作心态三方面同步着手。
（一）选题问题
开放教育学员本身写作水平不高（大多学员学历为中专），面对论文选题往往要么望而却步，要么求大求空，无法驾驭论文写作。要解决毕业论文选题难这个问题，在具体的毕业论文指导实践中，指导教师则需着力推进“两个兼容”原则。该原则有利于学员对自己的教学实践进行反思，并学以致用。
1.原则之一：教学实践和学术研究兼容。由于开放教育本科英语专业的学员大多数是中小学一线教师，有着相当丰富的教学经验，驾驭本专业与自己工作实践联系紧密的论文选题会相对来说容易得多。其次，学员对自己多年来的教学实践进行反思和思考，整理和提炼教学心得，再用于指导自己的教学实践，这样的论文很有实践性和指导性。最后要注意在强调联系教育实践的同时，也不能轻视了毕业论文的规范性，学员通过英文写作锻炼了英文写作技巧，同时也对论文写作的规范要求进行了写作实践。
2.原则之二：个人特长和实际情况兼容。学员进行毕业论文的选题时还要考虑自己的特长、综合知识水平、学术科研能力和客观条件。学员最好选择自身擅长并且有一定兴趣的题目。擅长能表现出学员对该论题有较深的认识思考及一定的实践经验，能降低写作难度，更充分地发挥个人的主观能动性，从而做到素材充实，个人见解深刻，针对性强。指导老师可帮助学生对历年的论文题目进行归类，然后就每一类给出具体实例，让学员亲身体验，和学员共同探讨，寻找自己感兴趣、熟悉或是能驾驭的题目。历年论文题目基本可划分为教学实践经验总结、学生心理研究、学科思想、学生非智力因素等方面。
（二）时间问题
由于开放教育本科英语专业学员大多为成人或在职中小学英语教师，工作负担沉重，家庭生活压力大，在完成工作任务和照顾好家庭之余用于论文写作的时间就非常有限，因此时间的合理安排和使用是毕业论文按期按质完成的重要保障。毕业论文的时间安排表如下：
从上表可以看出，在教学计划中留出用于毕业论文写作的时间本身就非常有限，且由于是安排在最后一个学期，面临毕业，论文已无延期上交的可能性，因学员自身不够重视或工作忙等原因最后只能选择放弃论文答辩的现象屡见不鲜。为改变这一无论是学员还是指导教师都不愿意看到的局面，笔者建议首先学员应当重视毕业论文的写作，毕竟三年所学，毕于所写。学员应当处理好学业与工作的关系，充分、高效地使用业余时间进行论文方案的实施及撰写，对写作过程中的困难要有充分的思想准备，耐得住寂寞，忍得下艰苦。其次，作为指导教师则应确实把握好论文写作的每个环节，运用E-Mail、手机等现代化联系方式，或告知学生可进行双向语音或视频联络的网址（例如雅虎通、QQ、MSN等）充分与学员进行有效沟通，指导到位，引导学员逐段完成论文，渐入佳境。按时间安排逐项完成各项写作任务还有赖于指导教师对学员的阶段性检查，定期检查学生的工作进度和质量。
（三）心态问题
学员积极的写作心态，是毕业论文顺利完成的重要保障。积极心态的创立离不开指导教师的培养和学员自身养成。
1.指导教师要为学员设置成功目标。在长达半年的毕业论文写作过程中，指导教师在学员因为这样或那样的困难导致论文写不下去时,应不厌其烦地进行鼓励。为了使毕业论文顺利完成这一远景目标变得不那么遥不可及，指导教师可以对远景目标进行分解，放在每一个写作阶段，逐一完成，使得远景目标的实现具备较强的可操作性。
2.学员对自己的论文写作应持积极心态。积极心态是一种对任何人、任何情况或任何环境所把持的正确、诚恳而且有建设性，同时也不违背法律、道德和人类权利的思想、行为或反映。积极心态有利于毕业论文的顺利完成。下图是柳州市广播电视大学2005-2011年部分毕业生毕业论文心理状况调查表，可以反映出由于持不同心态的毕业生参加毕业论文写作会产生的不同结果。
柳州市广播电视大学2005-2011年部分毕业生毕业论文心理状况调查表
上表显示的状况是不能令人放心的，这样的心态必然会引发教学、管理等方面的一系列问题。混学、浮学现象严重，缺勤、论文抄袭、拼凑等现象屡禁不绝。这些与上述消极心态有直接的关系。在艰辛的毕业论文创作过程中，学员应抱积极心态，把自己遇到的种种失败看成人生经历的宝贵财富。不论怎样，坚持下来，就是最大的胜利。在近五年的指导毕业论文的实践中，笔者发现具有积极心态的学员写作目标明确，动机强，遇到写作困难时善于动脑筋、想办法，写作进展速度快。而具有消极心态的学员在进行毕业论文的创作时，往往遇难而退；面对种种写作困难采取逃避或是蒙混过关的办法，其结果往往是论文不能按时上交，延期毕业。
三、结束语
综上所述，坚持“两个兼容”原则指导学员选题，合理安排论文撰写时间，帮助学生建立积极的撰写心态，能较好地体现电大开放教育培养“实用性、应用性”人才的办学宗旨，可以在一定程度上消除当前毕业论文写作的尴尬状况。毕业论文是一个极其艰辛的实施过程，只要学员合理安排好论文写作时间，保持积极的写作心态就能顺利完成毕业论文的写作，参加论文答辩，达到个人的学术研究高峰。
【参考文献】
[1]黄芬香.开放教育文科类毕业论文评价模式的构建[J].中国远程教育,2006(4):34-38.
[2]施小平.试论高校毕业论文(设计)的全面质量管理[J].高教探索,2006(4):62-64.
[3]曹文荣.远程教育毕业论文指导方法研究――基于上海电大毕业论文指导的实践[J].研究与交流,2007(5):11-13.
[4]王正东.流程型开放教育毕业论文(设计)追踪管理模式[J].广播电视大学学报:哲学社会科学版,2006,(3):125-127.宋立平.毕业论文写作指导[M].保定:河北大学出版社,2003.12.
[5]杜祥培,尹跃妮,欧阳中万.提高本科毕业论文(设计)质量的探讨[J].当代教育论坛,2003(9):75-77.
[6]司景萍,高志鹰.提高毕业设计质量的措施探讨[J].高等教育研究,2010(3):43-46.
[7]顾冀梅.关于英语专业本科毕业论文课程改革的思考[J].教育与职业,2009(12):164-165.
[8]郑秀恋.英语专业本科毕业论文选题的问题及对策[J].浙江理工大学学报,2009(3):436-439.
篇（11）
外国语学院英语专业学生毕业论文要求
一、毕业论文的目的
毕业论文是教学计划的最后一个重要环节，是落实教育培养目标的重要组成部分，其主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学的知识和语言技能，理论联系实际，独立分析和解决有关专业问题的实际能力，使学生得到从事本专业外语学术论文写作的基本训练。毕业论文的基本教学要求是：
1、通过毕业论文提高学生综合运用、扩展语言知识和专业知识的能力，培养学生独立分析问题、解决问题的能力。
2、通过撰写毕业论文，帮助学生接受科学研究、分析方法的初步训练。
3、培养学生正确的写作思想，理论联系实际的工作作风，严肃认真的科学态度。
4、使学生在外文资料查阅、阅读和翻译，语言表达、写作能力，计算机文字处理等基本技能方面得到进一步的训练和提高。
二、毕业论文题目的确定
(一) 方式：
1、由教研室安排教师做“怎样写毕业论文的报告”，详细介绍撰写论文的每一个环节和具体要求。
2、学生在指导教师指定的范围内选择和初步确定论文的方向。
3、由论文指导教师根据教学要求提供论文选题，在教研室汇总后向学生公布，供学生选题参考。
4、学生可根据自己所学专业，按学院所提供各专业论文参考选题确定题目，也可自选题目，必须报指导教师，征得同意后方可开题。原则上学生不得跨专业选题。
(二) 范围
英美语言文学、文化、语言学(语法、词法、修辞、语义、文体等)、翻译、国际商贸、国际商务、旅游、外语教学法等。
三、毕业论文写作要求
1、论文长度不少于3,000英文单词。
2、论文结构包括：
1) 标题 (title)
2) 作者署名 (name of the author and tutor)
3) 摘要 (abstract)(150—200词，中英文均要)
4) 关键词 (key words)(中英文均要)
5) 正文 (body)
6) 参考文献 (bibliography)
3、摘要(Abstract)通常为一个段落，长度不超过300个单词。
Abstract通常要回答如下问题：
(1)What is the general knowledge of your topic in the academic field?
(2)What research topic is the paper to focus on?
(3)What method or material do you use to support your main point of view?
(4)What conclusion will you draw?
(5)What is the main contribution of the paper?
4、关键词(Keywords)3至5个。除专有名词外，其他词不用大写，词与词之
间以分号隔开。
关键词应能反映论文的主要内容，因此常出现在标题与摘要中，多为名词，如用investigation 而不用investigate。
5、引言(Introduction)
6、在引言(Introduction)与结语(Conclusion)之间的正文部分应分若干章节。章节编号方法应采用分级阿拉伯数字编号方法，第一级为“1”、“2”、“3”等，第二级为“2.1”、“2.2”、“2.3”等,第三级为“2.2.1”、“2.2.2”、“2.2.3”等，但分级阿拉伯数字的编号一般不超过四级，两级之间用下角圆点隔开，每一级的末尾不加标点。
各层标题均单独占行书写。第一级标题居中书写;第二级标题序数顶格书写，后空一格接写标题，末尾不加标点;第三级和第四级标题均空两格书写序数，后空一格书写标题。第四级以下单独占行的标题顺序采用A.B.C……和a.b.c.两层，标题均空两格书写序数，后空一格写标题。正文中对总项包括的分项采用⑴、⑵、⑶…单独序号，对分项中的小项采用①、②、③…的序号或数字加半括号，括号后不再加其他标点。
7、如有注释，应为尾注。注释应编号，并置于参考文献之前。
8、参考文献数目不得少于5篇。排列采用以下格式：
1)参考期刊排列顺序为：作者，题目，期刊名称，出版年，卷(期)，页码
2)参考专著排列顺序为：作者，书名，出版地，出版社，出版年，页码
9、论文为Word形式打印稿，纸型为A4，单倍行距，英文用Times New Roman
字体，中文用宋体。
10、字号要求：大标题为3号字加黑，小标题为4号字加黑，正文、注释与
参考文献为5号字。
11、论文写作过程中，应自觉主动与指导教师联系，虚心接受教师指导。
12、按要求打印装订并上交。装订顺序为：
1)毕业论文封面
2)扉页(毕业设计/论文任务书)
3)毕业论文指导书
4)目录
5)中文摘要(含关键词)
6)英文摘要(含关键词)
7)正文
8)致谢
9)参考文献
13、进度安排：
1、确定选题 第 1 周 ( 09年 2月 22日前)
2、论文提纲 第 2 周 ( 09年 3月 1日前)
3、完成初稿 第3-5周 ( 09年 3月 22日前)
4、完成定稿 第 6 周 ( 09年 3月 29日前)
5、上交论文 第7周 ( 09年 4月 5日前)
14、注意：
1、目录用Word文档自动生成,用1.5倍行距,4号宋体。
2、中文摘要、英文摘要各占一页，按一级标题标示。
四、上交要求
学生按任务书上规定的时间，以班级为单位交辅导员处，辅导员汇总后上交学院。
中州大学外国语学院
参考样文如下
目 录
中文摘要 1
ABSTRACT 2
1 引言 2
2 企业文化的内涵 3
2.1 文化和企业的定义 3
2.1.1 企业组织的法律形态 3
2.1.2 企业组织的管理形态 4
2.2 企业文化 4
2.3 认识企业文化 5
2.4 企业文化的功能 6
3 企业文化对组织创新的影响 7
3.1 组织创新的内容 7
3.2 企业文化对组织创新的影响 7
3.2.1 影响组织结构创新 7
3.2.2 影响组织流程创新 8
3.2.3 组织制度创新 8
4 结语 9
参考文献 9
致谢 10
摘要
随着经济全球化和知识经济时代的到来，国内企业改革的深入发展, 众多企业对传统的组织结构进行了大胆的创新。同时，人们逐渐认识到企业文化是一个成功企业不可或缺的一部分，是影响企业经营业绩的根本，企业文化决定了企业的竞争地位。本文主要讨论了企业文化对企业组织创新的影响。文中首先给出了企业和文化的定义及其内涵，其次提出了企业文化的内容和主要功能，最后揭示了组织创新的内容，论述了企业文化在组织结构、组织流程、组织制度等三方面对企业组织创新的影响。企业文化与创新相互影响，相互促进，共同对企业的发展产生影响。
关键词：文化;企业文化;组织创新
Abstract(用Time New Roman 字体)
Along with the economic globalization and arrival of knowledge-based economy ages, the thorough development of the local business enterprise reform, numerous business enterprises carried on the innovation of the brave to the traditional organization structure. At the same time, the people know that the corporate culture is a gradually successfully a necessary part of the business enterprise, is a root that affects the business enterprise management accomplishment, the corporate culture comes to a decision the competition position of the business enterprise. This text mainly discusses the corporate culture to organize the creative influence to the business enterprise. Give first in the text definition and its contents of the business enterprise and culture, put forward contents and main functions of corporate culture the next in order, announced to public the creative contents of organization finally, discuss the corporate culture to organize the creative influence to the business enterprise in the aspects of organizing the structure, organize process, organize system wait third. The corporate culture and innovation affects mutually, promoting mutually, common to the development creation influence of the business enterprise.
Key Words: culture,corporate culture,System innovation
1 引言
不管您意识到与否，文化每时每刻都在对政治、经济、社会、生活产生着潜在的影响，发挥着不可忽视的作用。本文通过对企业文化的基本内涵、企业文化的重要性以及企业文化的影响，试图让人们认知、认识企业文化。让人们明确，只有继承和发扬中华民族的优秀传统文化，吸收和借鉴人类先进文化，才能建立起优秀的中国企业文化，重视企业文化的影响，据此才能建立起比较完善的社会主义市场经济体制，实现兴企、富民、强国的目标。
2 企业文化的内涵
2.1 文化和企业的定义
文化，从广义上说，是人类在社会实践过程中获得的物质、精神的生产力和创造的物质、精神的总和。从狭义上讲，是指人类精神生产力和精神产品，包括一切社会意识形式：如自然科学、技术科学和社会意识形态等。作为一种历史现象，文化的发展有历史继承性;作为社会意识形态，文化是一定社会政治和经济的反映，同时又对一定社会的政治和经济产生巨大的影响。
作为经济组织实体的企业，为了实现其以行政组织手段替代市场交易来协调生产的功能，就需要有一定的组织形态。
一般地说，企业组织形态包括两个相互关联的方面，其一是企业组织的法律形态，其二是企业组织的管理形态。
2.1.1 企业组织的法律形态
在企业的长期发展过程中企业组织逐步形成三种主要的法律形态，这就是业主制企业，合伙制企业和公司制企业，这种界定的依据是法律认可的企业产权制度，感情。。。。。。
(以下略)
4 结语
二十一世纪，一个最响亮的词语就是创新。创新已成为社会发展、经济增长的最关键动力，而企业文化又与创新有着紧密的联系，所以，企业若要获得长足的发展就必须将企业文化与创新思想相融合，发展现今社会所需要的企业文化，并促进企业文化的建设，同时不断地进行组织创新、技术创新，使企业文化与创新协调发展，相互促进。
致谢
本论文得以完成，首先应该感谢。。。老师。正是她在本论文的写作过程中的悉心指导、热情鼓励，在繁忙的工作中抽出时间来为我修改论文，我才能顺利完成我的双学位论文。
作为中州大学的一名毕业生，我更要感谢管理工程系给了我能够学习不同学科知识的机会。在两年的工商管理专业学习过程中，任课老师们的学识渊博、治学严谨、人品高尚无时不在影响着我。学习的时间是短暂的，但老师们的影响却是我终生收益不尽的。在此对我的老师们深表感谢!
在论文写作过程中，我的一些同学、朋友也给了我巨大的帮助与鼓励。在此一并感谢!
在我的成长、学习过程中，能够在大学阶段同时学习到工科、管理两个学科的知识，是我一生的荣幸与财富。我相信，在未来的日子里我会更加努力学习，充分利用所学知识，回报社会、师长。
参考文献
[1] 罗仲伟.托起辉煌.广州：广东旅游出版社，1997年
[2] 埃德加•沙因.企业文化与领导.北京：中国友谊出版公司，1989年
[3] 威廉•道芬内斯，科林•L•普赖斯.21世纪CEO的经营历理念.北京：华夏出版社，1998年
[4] 杰克琳•谢瑞顿,詹姆斯•L•斯特恩.企业文化:排除企业成功的潜在障碍.上海：上海人民出版社，1998年
[5] 艾伦•迪尔,阿伦肯•尼迪.企业文化.北京：三联书店，1989年
[6] 埃尔文格•罗赫拉.企业组织.北京：经济管理出版社1991年
[7] 窦立夫.论组织效率变革策略 (科学学研究)，1995(2)
[8] 连燕华.企业组织创新的案例研究.科学学研究)，1992(2)
[9] 梁镇,赵国杰.企业管理创新.北京：中国经济出版社，1996年
[10] 林毅夫等.现代企业制度的内涵与国有企业改革方向.经济研究,1997(3)
[11] P F•德鲁克.创新与组织.中外科技政策与管理,1995(12)
[12] 许庆瑞.技术创新管理. 杭州：浙江大学出版社,1990年
[13] 颜光桐,刘正周等.企业再造.上海：上海财经大学出版社,1998
[14] 周振华. 企业改制.上海：上海人民出版社,1996年
